Yulök Revista de Innovación Académica, ISSN 2215-5147, Vol. 5, N.º 2

Junio- diciembre 2021, pp. 39-50

Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

Adult learning: Salient Conditions and

Non-traditional Approaches

Olmedo Bula Villalobos

Universidad Estatal a Distancia, Centro de Idiomas. San José, Costa Rica

obula@uned.ac.cr

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7304-0076

Abstract

Learning in adulthood constitutes a process that is shaped and influenced by the societal group in which adult learners share, work,

live, grow, experience, fail and achieve success. Comprehending and appreciating the historical and sociocultural ways of unders-

tanding and being represent an endeavor on which adult learners need to embark in order to grasp the nature and purpose of learning

within particular milieus. The aim of this paper is to explore salient conditions and non-traditional approaches through an adult

learning lens so as to offer an overarching panorama of the field. These salient conditions are globalization, technology, population

growth and economic factors. The non-traditional approaches discussed are embodied learning, narrative learning, spiritual learning,

transformative learning theory, indigenous knowledge and pedagogy of solidarity. Finally, the conclusion highlights the relevance of

adult learning for societies. The last twenty years have brought a much-needed recognition that adult learning is multidimensional.

This constitutes a relevant takeaway. Moving away from the vision that cognitive processing is the unique and most important ele-

ment when acquiring knowledge has brought thought-provoking constructs such as spirituality, feelings, environmental awareness,

emotions, fears, and experiences to a more holistic, in-depth vision of learning. As a result, the field of adult learning is influenced

by the sociohistorical context where it takes place. Learning in society provides broader concepts where the current realities of the

workplace, educational systems, economic vicissitudes and life situations directly impact the status quo of learning in adulthood. It

is precisely this richness in the diversity of contexts that makes the field of adult learning a multidimensional phenomenon.

Keywords: Adult learning, learning conditions, non-traditional approaches, multidimensional

Resumen

El aprendizaje en la edad adulta constituye un proceso moldeado e influenciado por el grupo social en el que los estudiantes adultos

comparten, trabajan, viven, crecen, experimentan y fracasan. Comprender y apreciar las formas históricas y socioculturales de enten-

der y ser representa un esfuerzo en el que los estudiantes adultos deben embarcarse para comprender la naturaleza y el propósito del

aprendizaje dentro de entornos particulares. El objetivo de este trabajo es explorar condiciones sobresalientes y enfoques no tradi-

cionales con un lente de aprendizaje para adultos para ofrecer un panorama general del campo. Estas condiciones sobresalientes son

la globalización, la tecnología, el crecimiento de la población y los factores económicos. Los enfoques no tradicionales discutidos

son el aprendizaje por medio del cuerpo, el aprendizaje narrativo, el aprendizaje espiritual, la teoría del aprendizaje transformador,

el conocimiento indígena y la pedagogía de la solidaridad. Finalmente, la conclusión destaca la relevancia del aprendizaje de adultos

para las sociedades. Los últimos veinte años han traído consigo un reconocimiento muy necesario de que el aprendizaje de adultos

es multidimensional. Esto constituye una conclusión relevante. Alejarse de la visión de que el procesamiento cognitivo es el único

y más importante elemento a la hora de adquirir conocimientos, ha mostrado conceptos interesantes como la espiritualidad, senti-

mientos, conciencia ambiental, emociones, miedos y experiencias, para una visión más holística y profunda del aprendizaje. Como

resultado, el campo del aprendizaje de adultos está influenciado por el contexto sociohistórico donde tiene lugar. El aprendizaje

en la sociedad proporciona conceptos más amplios donde las realidades actuales del lugar de trabajo, los sistemas educativos, las

vicisitudes económicas y las situaciones de la vida impactan directamente en el status quo del aprendizaje en la edad adulta. Es preci-

samente esta riqueza en la diversidad de contextos lo que hace del campo del aprendizaje de adultos un fenómeno multidimensional.

Palabras clave: Aprendizaje de adultos, condiciones de aprendizaje, enfoques no tradicionales, multidimensional

Aprendizaje de adultos: Condiciones sobresa-

lientes y enfoques no tradicionales

Referencia/ reference:

Bula, O. (2021). Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches. Yulök Revista De Innovación Académica,

Vol. 5 (2). https://doi.org/10.47633/yulk.v5i2.396

Recibido: 9 de noviembre del 2020 Aceptado: 5 de setiembre del 2021

Yulök Revista de Innovación Académica, ISSN 2215-5147, Vol. 5, N.º 2

Junio- diciembre 2021, pp. 39-50

Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

For the Kunas Indigenous people, learning is embedded

in the roots of their community (Ventocilla et al., 1995).

It is a sociohistorical process with a deep connection and

respect for the environment, soul, body, mind, and emo-

tions. Therefore, learning is a personal and social cons-

truct that constitutes the underlying basis of society and

life in general. Non-traditional approaches must be con-

sidered in the general outlook of adult learning. In doing

so, we are not only enriching the tenets of modern adult

learning theories, we are also respectfully acknowledging

ancestral and successful learning constructs that have un-

doubtedly thrived through human history and have been

pivotal for the metanarratives and development of our

societies. Likewise, learning in adulthood constitutes an

ongoing process that reflects the interaction of a myriad

of social aspects with learners. The different social con-

texts and their nuances within a society are critical for

the teaching-learning processes. They help ensure social

justice, peacemaking, economic progress, wellbeing and

raise awareness of the national identity and idiosyncrasy.

Framed within a general perspective of learning, adult

learning emerges as a process that is shaped and influen-

ced by the societal group in which adult learners share,

work, live, grow, experience, fail and achieve success

(Merriam et al., 2007). Comprehending and appreciating

the historical and sociocultural ways of understanding

and being represent an endeavor on which adult learners

need to embark in order to grasp the nature and purpose

of learning within particular milieus.

The aim of this paper is to explore salient conditions and

non-traditional approaches with an adult learning lens

so as to provide an overarching panorama of the field. It

comprises two sections containing generalities and per-

ceptions. At the same time it is a discussion to synthesize

and assess major theories, concepts, insights, interpreta-

tions and implications. The sections of this paper are en-

titled as follows: Salient conditions of adult learning and

non-traditional approaches. Finally, some conclusions are

provided. These summarize the main aspects of the con-

ditions and approaches.

Salient Conditions of Adult Learning

This section examines the sociocultural environment that

outlines the adult learning process in societies. The im-

portance of these conditions to the field of Adult Learning

is also established.

Globalization. Globalization is present in every layer of

our day-to-day contexts. It is a construct that encompas-

ses economy, tourism, national and local identities, socio-

historical mindsets, business and cultural exchanges. The

complexity of the interconnection among these aspects

is remarkable basically because it enhances new ways of

understanding what impacts adult learning. For instan-

ce, exchanges with different realities and forms of being

from nations and groups give rise to ways of approaching

education processes, which is the case in some develo-

ping countries of Latin America and Africa. Particularly,

andragogy has had an important impact on adult and con-

tinuing education (Merriam et al., 2007).

Likewise, globalization has established a need for con-

nectivity and communication that enhance more general,

job-associated requirements and ongoing training for both

professionals and adults. In exemplifying the connection

between adult learning and economic tendencies caused

by globalization, Merriam et al., (2007) commented that

“adult education and human resource development, in

particular, have responded with broad-based workplace

literacy programs and training and development packa-

ges designed to address a wide range of economy-driven

needs” (p. 13).

Furthermore, an interconnected world demands technical

skills that also shape the needs, wants and lacks of adult

education. For example, producing goods and providing

services usually require low-skilled workers. On the

other hand, training professionals require extensive and

high-quality preparation. All of these considerations need

to be carefully weighed in with an economic approach in

the so-called information society. A caveat, it comes as

no surprise that globalization entails unforeseen challen-

ges to the groups involved. What is potentially harmful is

the influence of external systems of beliefs on the iden-

tity and idiosyncrasy of nations that serves as the basis

for educational systems. Understanding, preserving and

celebrating the sociocultural traits that identify a nation

or group constitute a must to avoid the exacerbation and

resentment that might be caused by globalization. Po-

licy-wise lawmakers and societies must reflect on how

globalization influences adult education and the nations’

best interests.

In addition, the relevance of globalization to the field of

adult learning lies in the fact that we live in an intercon-

nected world where languages, worldviews, mindsets,

identities, aspirations and cultural beliefs are inevitably

intertwined. To me, adult learning is multifaceted. It is

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

multifaceted because globalization establishes different

paradigms within cultures and at the same time create

new ways of approaching things. This amalgam of factors

relates to the multiple possibilities and realities that glo-

balization offers. Now, the implications for adult learning

include a concept of education, where national and inter-

national realities are explored and the implementation of

educational and training programs that enhance learning

capabilities to cover specific needs, wants and lacks. In

addition, globalization poses both threats and opportuni-

ties that must be taken into consideration in adult edu-

cation. The positive points of globalization outweigh the

negative aspects. Globalization provides opportunities to

explore different ways of thinking and doing. Thus, the

consideration of new options when facing particular edu-

cational problems might enrich the ways of approaching

a situation for both cultural groups.

Technology. Technology has had an impact on societies

and education as well. The computer is a good example

of the technological influence on adult education (Mitra,

1998). Concurrent with the shift to a globalized economy

is the shift to a fast-changing technological society where

adults need to be prepared to function properly with the

state-of-the-art technology and wizardry that have inva-

ded modern societies. This shift has given rise to a new

era of teaching-learning processes whereby adults need to

internalize the possibilities that computers promote: arti-

ficial intelligence, applications, education software and

massive production. Moreover, the information society

establishes challenges to our highly-computerized socie-

ties where information access and storage is no longer

an issue. From takeaway food to phone calls to the other

side of the world, almost anything is virtually accessible

with a click of the mouse. In this sense, adult education

is evolving so as to foster thinking and problem-solving

skills. Problematizing, criticizing and assessing have be-

come paramount in the digital era.

Likewise, technology has also created non-traditional

spaces for working and learning. Asynchronous platfor-

ms and tools offer training possibilities in which adults

can participate according to a schedule appropriate to

their working responsibilities. Interestingly, synchronous

conferences might also promote higher thinking skills

through forms of training and telecommuting. Techno-

logy influences what, how, when, and why adults are

learning what they must know to function accordingly

in technologically-driven scenarios. Take the example of

computers software used to conduct statistical analysis.

The workers who do not receive proper and on-going tra-

ining are likely to be outpaced.

Finally, technology indeed provides elements to cover a

whole variety of needs when it comes to adults and their

learning processes. In this regard, Merriam et al., (2007)

posited that “computer-assisted instruction, teleconferen-

cing, interactive videodisk, the Internet, and the World

Wide Web are expanding the possibilities of meeting the

growing learning needs of adults” (p. 20). When analyzing

this concept, it can be concluded that technology not only

influences adult learning, but it also dictates norms in the

field. Technology should be incorporated into educational

processes as it has become an undeniable part of our edu-

cational reality. Online learning environments with sy-

nchronous and asynchronous activities represent a clear

example of the impact of technology on the field of adult

learning. Technology plays a relevant role in the shift to a

society of information and knowledge. This is important,

as major breakthroughs in technology are changing the

way adults learn and communicate. The best example is

mobile technology. According to the Costa Rica’s Natio-

nal Statistics Institute (2017), 95.80 % of Costa Ricans

have a cellular telephone. Mobile technology allows easy

access to websites and applications that foster learning

processes from a holistic perspective. Finally, it is also

relevant to mention that technology per se does not cons-

titute an end by itself, rather a means to be used to accom-

plish particular objectives. A solid pedagogical mediation

must be implemented to generate interaction among adult

students, technological devices and class materials.

Population growth. Changing demographics constitutes

a reality in our countries. Statistics show that adults out-

number other segments of the population. According to

the Costa Rica’s National Statistics Institute (2014), this

social reality has become a trend in the last few years.

Remarkably, this is also a reality in other parts of the

world. Populations continue to age thanks to medical and

scientific breakthroughs that support the establishment

of national and local policies for the general wellbeing

of citizens. This reality has implications within the field

of adult learning. It has resulted in shifts to approach

learning and education from an adult perspective. For

example, the provisions of educational services for adult

populations has been consolidated with the increasing

number of particular needs and lacks that adults face in

an ever-changing society.

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

Furthermore, one has to admit adult learning represents

an ongoing business that has transformed adults’ interests

into a profitable enterprise (Merriam et al., 2007). This

focus might influence adult learning from an unhealthy

financial perspective in which pedagogical decisions are

informed by economic nuances. This situation might be

a real conundrum for adult learners and educators as it

poses moral issues. Additionally, the cultural variety re-

presents a significant feature of changing demographics.

Like many other countries in our continent, Costa Rica is

a cultural melting pot where several ethnic groups coexist.

Immigration indeed plays an important role in this socio-

historical reality. The composition and interaction of these

elements have had implications for adult learning where

teaching methodologies must be adapted, assimilated and

implemented. This combination of elements poses a set

of challenges where passions and nationalistic traits must

be considered. From my viewpoint, this represents a po-

sitive challenge as long as newcomers and locals consider

new ways of being. Tolerance and respect are necessary

in the field of adult learning. I believe that immigration

processes strengthen the formation of societies and play

a seminal role in the development of a country. Notably,

Costa Rica has become a receiving country of immigrants

especially from Nicaragua, Colombia and China (Costa

Rica’s National Statistics Institute, 2011).

Economic factors. “… [E]conomic factors are shaping

the nature of our society, and by extension, the nature of

learning that adults are most likely to undertake” (Me-

rriam et al., 2007, p. 17). Being an adult educator myself,

I align with this concept. Not only does the economy sha-

pe the nature of adult learning, it also establishes its own

rules when it comes to the provisions and administration

of adult education. The economic context of nations dic-

tates what, how, why and when adults are to learn. Let

us consider the example of countries that are economi-

cally dependent on particular activities such as services.

These nations elaborate education programs to fulfill spe-

cific job-related needs. These stem from contexts where

specific training programs and skills are required. It is

evident that these contexts are influenced and determined

by economic constructs. Much of this influence portrays

the dilemma of foreign intervention in the sovereignty

of nations. Economic factors are shaping an unstoppa-

ble economic globalization that is market driven. Noti-

ceably, this reality is becoming a menacing reality for

academia, universities and their impact on societies. In

illustrating this concept, Giroux (2014) has observed that

“central to this neoliberal view of higher education is a

market-driven paradigm that wants to eliminate tenure,

turn the humanities into a job preparation service, and re-

duce most faculty to the status of part-time and temporary

workers…” (p. 139).

It is worth noting that adult educators should incorporate

meaning-making processes and reflexive mechanisms to

determine when these economic factors go too far and

jeopardize the nations’ identity and worldwide vision.

With that in mind, societies need to be wise enough to

pinpoint such elements along a continuum. Nevertheless,

this does not mean that foreign investments should be au-

tomatically sanctioned or rejected whatsoever. As an im-

migrant myself, I understand the relevance and influence

of economic aspects in the multilayered realm of adult

education. As adult educators, we need to foster proce-

dures that guarantee equality and a fair distribution of re-

sources. Economic threats and inequalities tend to trigger

social movements and revolutions. Intolerance, injustice

and fear must be eradicated from our mindsets if we in-

tend to advance as a society. This is paramount as econo-

mic factors shape and influence the nature of adult lear-

ning. Moreover, adult learning and education in general

entail serene moments for reflection and transformation.

The lack of educational opportunities tends to bring fur-

ther upheaval to countries already struggling with social

injustice and intolerance.

Finally, the relevance of reflection concerning these as-

pects is explored. In Ellen Rose’s On Reflection I came

upon sound concepts to justify the importance of reflec-

tion. First, I share the idea that reflection is closely alig-

ned with creativity (Rose, 2013). Reflection can be con-

ceptualized as a creative process that takes place naturally

and purposefully at the same time, those ‘aha’ moments

that trigger periods of deep reflection. Here we must be

careful with the inclusion of rationality and critical thin-

king when discussing reflection. Even though reflection

might be considered as a synonym of rationality, it is im-

portant to mention that rationality entails a more systema-

tic and analytical process (Rose, 2013). Likewise, critical

thinking is closely intertwined with reflection mainly

when (de)constructing ideas with critical theory (Rose,

2013). Now, why does reflection matter? To answer this

question, Rose (2013) posited that:

It is only by opening ourselves to reflection, ac-

cording [sic] it value as a way of thinking and

being, that we can counteract the prevailing in-

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

fluence of the technical mindset, with its privile-

ging of efficiency and instrumentalism, and thus

achieve balance and fulfillment in our lives. (p. 35)

To avoid the influence of this technical mindset that glo-

balization, economic factors and technology have in lear-

ning process in the field of adult education, a solid and

ongoing process of reflection must be instituted at all le-

vels of the education systems, particularly with teachers,

professors and students. Based on this idea, it is clear that

different levels of implementation are required – that is,

reflection and action are vital constructs when discussing

these conditions. “Making time for reflection-then-action

in classrooms, workplaces, and elsewhere expresses a

commitment to slow, silent thought as a way of deepe-

ning our engagement…” (p. 32).

Non-traditional Approaches

This section covers some non-traditional approaches and

my perception of their implications on adult education.

Likewise, the main reasons and purpose in choosing these

approaches are analyzed.

Embodied learning. Almost seventy percent of communi-

cative acts are non-verbal. In other words, the body plays

a major role when it comes to communicating as people

use gestures, signs, emotions, feelings, interpretations,

and meaning-making. Non-verbal communication and

the role of the body in second and foreign language set-

tings must be considered to make informed pedagogical

decisions when teaching and planning – it also has to be

considered in other educational fields. Consider the fo-

llowing conversation.

friend 1: monopoly?

friend 2: nope

friend 1: a movie?

friend 2: naaahhh

friend 1: a snack?

friend 2: oh goody, goody

friend 1: tacos or burritos?

friend 2: burritos… yummy, yummy!

Now, picture the following scenario with the same con-

versation.

friend 1: (mind-numbingly bored) monopoly?

friend 2: (careless) nope

friend 1: (less bored) a movie?

friend 2: (yawning) naaahhh

friend 1: (rubbing her belly) a snack?

friend 2: (excited) oh goody, goody

friend 1: (looking hungrily) tacos or burritos?

friend 2: (really excited and clapping) burritos… (rising intona-

tion) yummy, yummy!

One can conclude that the second description provides a

more detailed picture of the conversation and somehow

feel what the friends are going through basically because

of the bodily descriptors available. Linguistically spea-

king, the conversation above does not depend on verbs

in order to convey meaning but rather on body expres-

sions. This is perhaps an irrefutable language class argu-

ment according to which reclaiming the body in learning

settings constitutes a must. From my language teaching

perspective, it is a much-needed endeavor. Cultural traits

and their meaning are embedded in reactions, gestures,

movements, and facial expressions.

It is true that formal and scientific schooling has na-

rrowed learning to a mental construction and disregarded

the body, emotions, soul, and feelings as part of the com-

municative process. To confirm this idea, Merriam et al.,

(2007) have observed that “the whole person is made up

of mind, body, and spirit. Rarely, however, are the body

and spirit taken into account when we talk about lear-

ning” (p. 189).

Likewise, when reviewing the concept of embodiment,

Freiler (2008) highlights that this construct “…involves

a sense of connectedness and interdependence through

the essence of lived experiencing within one’s complete

humanness, both body and mind, in perceiving, interac-

ting, and engaging with the surrounding world” (p. 40).

Generally speaking, one can argue that in Western socie-

ties the body and its connections have been systematica-

lly neglected. Additionally, educational systems need to

pay more attention to the role of the body and its impact

on learning. The rationale behind this statement is that

human beings are a combination of body, mind, spirit,

and emotions. Then why are such pivotal elements of

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

human beings kept away from the learning process ac-

cording to Western perspectives? Teachers, professors,

administrators, and curriculum designers are indeed ac-

countable for the promotion of a holistic view of learning

which encompasses all these elements. Finally, Merriam

et al., (2007) considered a four-part model of embodied

learning. This model includes the following concepts: ki-

nesthetic, sensory, affective, and spiritual. Finally, it can

said that learning is a social manifestation that takes into

account body, soul, mind, emotions, feelings, nature and

the educational setting. In other words, learning is not

confined or exclusive to mental processes.

The dichotomy mind versus body has been evident in

Western models of education. Reality dictates human

beings are made of body and mind, some even advocate

for soul. Drawing on this fact, (re)claiming the body in

learning entails a perspective where non-cognitive stages

of knowledge convey new degrees of relevance for adult

education. Generally speaking, education needs to move

away from the mind-body connection to focus on a holis-

tic perspective of learners who are formed and influenced

by a myriad of factors. It might be obvious to pinpoint

that learning through the body could be considered the

threshold for particular disciplines that tend to favor bo-

dily expressions such as acting and dancing. Interestin-

gly, other more cerebral disciplines also depend on the

body to establish communicative processes conducive to

learning, which is the case in education and medicine.

Problematizing the far-reaching implications of em-

bodied learning constitutes a major challenge for adult

educators and researchers. Nevertheless, examples of

embodied learning do provide significant hints on the im-

portance of reclaiming the body in learning. One of the

most significant is that of the tsunami in Thailand were

gypsies ‘felt’ a premonition that directly impacted their

survival possibilities (Freiler, 2008). “… [E]mbodiment

needs to be viewed within a broader movement toward

holistic, integrative learning approaches wherein the

body is made more visible as a source of knowledge and

site for learning through objective and subjective realms

of knowing” (Freiler, 2008, p. 44). When analyzing this

idea, it is evident that learning takes place in societal sca-

ffoldings with a diverse variety of elements that influence

adult education.

The nature of embodiment and learning is an interrela-

ted and complex construct. One can say that there is a

strong connection between embodiment and learning and

the potentiality of learning through the body. Based on

this connection, I consider that bodies (not just minds or

souls) are the vehicle for learning. Mostly, this is rele-

vant to adult learning as adult learners have developed

an awareness of the functions of the body and its readi-

ness to construct meaning in learning. Next, there is a

deep connection between the body and learning (Freiler,

2008). Learning considers the body, feelings, emotions,

gestures, and expressions. Learning is not limited to men-

tal processes whatsoever. Additionally, there is a high de-

gree of orality in these conceptions. For instance, storyte-

lling plays a significant role in the identity construction

of these societies. Furthermore, informality represents a

key consideration. This informality does not belittle the

quality of social manifestations. Later, the respect for the

elders’ wisdom constitutes a fundamental feature, espe-

cially from Indigenous perspectives.

With that in mind, the reasons of the inclusion of embo-

died learning in the paper are now reviewed. The most

important argument is that there is no mind without a

body. Although it may sound obvious, the dichotomy

body-mind is evident in some learning environments

(Leavy et al., 2009). (Re)claiming the body constitutes

a vital endeavor for adult educators. In addition, I also

align with the concept that the body represents a source

of knowledge (Merriam et al., 2007). Understanding the

subtleties of how the body works and its influence on the

teaching-learning process is a must. Finally, an important

reason emerges from the connection of embodied lear-

ning to adult learning as it contributes to meaning-ma-

king processes (Merriam et al., 2007). The value of em-

bodied learning is undeniable to adult learning contexts.

“Learning occurs in social contexts and bodies, not just in

minds” (Freiler, 2008, p. 45).

Narrative learning. Narrative learning forms part of a

long-standing tradition of learning among our cultures,

particularly the Indigenous and First Nation groups.

This oral tradition constitutes a learning method by it-

self in which elder members of the community explain

their world view and their implications to societal groups

(Clark & Rossiter, 2008). Likewise, narrative learning re-

presents a major asset in modern disciplines which are

based on oral traditions: psychology, teaching, medici-

ne and social work (Hopkins, as cited in Merriam et al.,

2007). Adult education also benefits from different forms

of narrative learning. Storytelling, biographies and auto-

biographies, historical events, and cultural narratives are

examples of narrative learning.

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

In a way or another, societies are immersed in the telling

and hearing of all kinds of stories: movies, news, social

media, formal and informal settings. Closely related to

Indigenosity (and to spirituality if we see that a tenet of

spirituality is interconnectedness) is the construct of na-

rrative learning. This narrative perspective offers both,

a methodology to promote learning and a framework to

classify the learning process. Human beings and socie-

ties, in general, find themselves constantly resorting to

storytelling as an effective way to convey meaning and

perpetuate their existence in time. Life itself is a cons-

truction of a social and personal metanarrative where me-

aning is essential to the learning process. On this matter,

Clark and Rossiter (2008) have mentioned that “in narra-

tive learning theory, we argue that there is an even closer

connection between learners and experience” (p. 64). In

essence, narrative learning draws on constructivism and

experiential theories (Clark & Rossiter, 2008).

Next, learning through storytelling is a multilayered

three-step method: stories that one hears, stories that are

told, and recognition of these stories (Clark & Rossiter,

2008). I certainly agree with this idea suggesting that it

is through the narration of a story, the meaning attached

to it, and the links to previous knowledge that learning

is constructed via significant experiences. Finally, Clark

and Rossiter provide specific practices of narrative lear-

ning: learning journals, autobiographical writing, and

case studies (Clark & Rossiter, 2008). Here other cons-

tructs must be included so as to strengthen narrative lear-

ning: storytelling, critical writing, and reflective verba-

lization. To conclude, Merriam et al., (2007) established

that “narratives are also windows into development and

transformational learning. They enable us to make sen-

se of our experience, which is what adult learning is all

about” (p. 215). In this statement, a new element is con-

sidered. Mezirow’s framework of transformation theory,

which essentially assumes a constructivist orientation,

provides spaces for reflection so as to transform meaning

structures. Finally, Merriam et al., (2007) point out that

“stories can be used to understand content, ourselves, and

the world in which we live” (p. 215). There is something

about good stories that lures people. It is within narrative

learning that all human beings can find similarities and

important degrees of universality.

“Cultural narratives or myths are those that define the so-

ciocultural milieu in which we live; they form the taken-

for-granted assumptions on which we live our lives in the

way that we do” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 208). Raising

awareness and understanding the elements that define the

idiosyncrasy and identity of a nation or a group constitu-

te a must for meaning-making processes. Such elements

are imbued with cultural narratives. On a personal note,

I cannot forget my great-grandfather’s invaluable stories

where elements of social justice, freedom, wellbeing, de-

mocracy and integrity were internalized.

Narrative learning is included in this paper as I have

always understood the world through powerful stories

and colorful narrations. Learning through orality has pro-

vided different ways of being, understanding, thinking

and learning (Clark & Rossiter, 2008). Storytelling and

stories represent vehicles for sociocultural awareness

and lifelong learning. In one way or another, all human

beings relate to stories that convey reflection, analysis,

learning and growth possibilities, meaning, knowledge

and idiosyncrasy. Likewise, a strong reason comes from

the fact that narrative learning draws on tenets of cons-

tructivism and has links to transformational learning.

To support this idea, Merriam et al., (2007) observed that

“narrative learning is the use of stories in the construction

of meaning, whether the meaning-making has to do with

the self, with the content of instruction, or with the world

around us” (p. 216). Furthermore, Merriam et al., (2007)

established a connection between constructivism and

transformational learning when they stated that “aspects

of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning,

transformational learning, experiential learning, situated

cognition, and reflective practice” (p. 297). Finally, a sig-

nificant reason relates to my research interests. I believe

that narratives provide genuine opportunities to engage in

meta states of consciousness and awareness to fully un-

derstand the idiosyncrasy of nations and societal groups.

“A careful analysis of the teacher-student relationship at

any level, inside or outside the school, reveals its funda-

mentally narrative character” (Freire, 2018, p. 71).

Spiritual learning. For our very first vacation in Costa

Rica (we come from Panama), my mother decided we

were to visit a representative place of the country. Be-

cause of its beauty, unique waves, and majestic views,

Jaco is considered one of the most beautiful beaches in

Costa Rica. My cousin and new best friend decided to go

for a swim – there we were having fun, enjoying nature,

bonding, and swimming. Suddenly and to my horror, my

cousin was beginning to drown. I can still remember that

day. It was a sunny Tuesday and the beach was absolutely

empty – we were literally by ourselves in that little piece

of paradise. Desperate and not knowing what to do or how

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

to react, I swam back to the shore crying for help. Out

of nowhere a surfer with a huge board skillfully reached

my cousin and literally saved him from a horrible death.

Pandemonium reigned in that moment – friends and re-

latives were angry, excited, frightened, and nervous. At

that moment, nobody was really sure who was the hero

that had rescued my cousin basically because that person

disappeared, he simply vanished. After years of insightful

consideration and rationalization, there is no doubt in my

mind that person was an angel sent by a superior entity.

Arguably, one can say that such a manifestation could be

explained as nothing but a miracle. Moreover, this expe-

rience triggered spirituality in my life.

Now, what is spirituality and how is it related to adult

education? This is a thought-provoking question, indeed.

First, it is necessary to clarify that spirituality does not

represent an outbreak of radicalism, bigotry, or extre-

mism in learning settings. It is not a group of weirdoes

with candles, soft music, or naïve concepts of relaxa-

tion practices either. When defining spirituality, Tisdell

(2008) states that “…in contemporary literature spiritua-

lity is about an individual’s personal experience with the

sacred, which can be experienced anywhere. Religion,

on the other hand, is about an organized community of

faith, with an official creed, and codes of regulatory be-

havior” (p. 28). From this definition, one can tell that re-

ligion and spirituality are intertwined and the continuum

that separates both concepts is somehow blurry. From my

viewpoint, spirituality involves a more personal and insi-

ghtful perspective. On the other hand, religion constitutes

a social and group experience that is nurtured from each

person’s spirituality. Next, it is evident that spirituality

has had a tremendous impact on adult learning. Despite,

an initial degree of marginalization, spirituality has posi-

tioned itself as a current topic with solid connections to

adult learning. In this regard, Tisdell (2008) argues that

“in more recent years, this implicit influence of spiritua-

lity in adult education has become more explicit in that

there’s more direct discussion of it” (p. 30).

Additionally, it is the professor’s responsibility to crea-

te a non-threatening environment and the conditions

conducive to spirituality. To support this idea, Merriam

et al., (2007) have observed that “a sacred space allows

for dialogue where one listens to others’ experiences

without judgment. The teacher is accountable for desig-

ning a learning experience that both supports and cha-

llenges the learners” (p. 204). From this statement, one

can conclude that teachers are accountable for creating

pedagogical conditions in the classroom. Building on this

concept, I am not saying that such an environment will

automatically lead to spirituality. If spirituality does arise,

teachers and professors need to be ready to let students

make connections on their own so as to facilitate the me-

aning-making progress. In other words, it is relevant to

give students time and space to digest, understand, in-

ternalize, and benefit from the spiritual moment that will

be conducive to learning. Next, spirituality does inform

learning processes. Some experiences are reported here:

First, the universality of spiritual involvements in diffe-

rent cultures, impressions, and concurrences in times of

struggle and festivity, activities attained to meditative sta-

tes or in natural settings, and finally experiences related

to the ontogenesis of identity traits (Tisdell, 2008). Fina-

lly, taking into account the premise that the teachers’ role

is to enable learning by empowering students, spirituality

needs to be understood as a personal and inner process –

shimmering and significant occasions where spirituality

might contribute to learning.

Spirituality is an inner process about meaning-making

that is invariably affected by social beliefs and traditions.

The connection between spirituality and meaning-ma-

king implies a positionality in adult learning (Merriam

et al., 2007). Research indicates that spirituality infor-

med the professional practice of adult educators. Tisdell

(2008) reports on the universality of human experience,

dreams, meditation moments and identity development

as significant spiritual experiences connected to adult

education (Tisdell, 2008). Attending to spirituality goes

beyond a set of candles and a romantic idea of a shimme-

ring moment, it deals with creating safe, non-threatening

environments for deep connections. “There is power in

trying to engage people in spiral learning opportunities

that draw on multiple realms of being, including the ra-

tional; the affective; and the symbolic, imaginal, and spi-

ritual domains” (Tisdell, 2008, p. 34). Closely related to

this concept is the belief that empowering learners is to

provide a sense of security conducive to spiritual growth.

The reasons for including spiritual learning in this paper

are now examined. To me, spirituality is paramount in

every field – I consider myself a spiritual person. Even

though spirituality might be difficult to explore in the

more rational and cerebral mindset of academia because

of its nature, its connection to meaning-making establi-

shes a basis to be considered within the realm of adult

learning (Merriam et al., 2007). The connection between

spirituality and meaning-making is a reason to consider

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

spiritual learning as a relevant approach conducive to

learning. A caveat, throughout my considerations, I took

the position that spiritual learning is basically about mea-

ning-making. Noticeably, it could be argued that spiritua-

lity relates to religion or other types of practices. It is not

the case here.

Transformative learning theory. “Transformative lear-

ning is learning that transforms problematic frames of

reference – sets of fixed assumptions and expectations

(habits of mind, meaning perspectives, mindsets) – to

make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, reflec-

tive, and emotionally able to change” (Mezirow, 2003,

p. 58). Drawing on experiences and inner interpretations,

transformative learning aids to understand and clarify

the processes of transformation that adults go through in

a lifetime, both socially and personally. Personally, the

main takeaway from Mezirow’s theory of adult learning

revolves around the concept that learning is conceived as

a social construct where the previous understanding of a

situation provides a solid basis for an original perspecti-

ve – that is, this line of reasoning and inquiring advances

knowledge with a new vision. Mezirow advocates for a

theory that provides the tools and necessary environment

to acquire capabilities that help them function properly

according to their field of expertise (Mezirow, 2003). I

too believe this is a must for any theory or approach that

deals with adult education. Additionally, Mezirow im-

plies the idea that transformative learning may go beyond

the provision of particular skills when suggesting that

acquiring critical skills in order to exercise reflective as-

sessment also constitutes a possibility (Mezirow, 2003).

Building on this concept, one can say that acquiring and

developing critical skills represents the essence of adult

education. Additionally, I do believe that action in trans-

formative learning goes beyond the class. It is a theory

that impacts the holistic process of learning. Now, the

constructivist nature of the theory fosters opportunities

for learners to (re)interpret their learning. Delving into

the basis of our frames of reference to develop deep awa-

reness stages constitutes a real challenge. To me, trans-

formation also implies elements of change to improve

current conditions of societies.

Central to the theory of Transformative Learning is the

concept of experience (Merriam et al., 2007). Now, it is

relevant not to idealize the construct of experience. A nai-

ve and romantic idea of experience does not constitute

any legitimate learning per se whatsoever (Brookfield,

1998). Engaging in critical reflection processes through

a critically reflective lens that fosters transformational

stages is within adult educators’ purview. “Liberating

education consists in acts of cognition, not transferrals of

information. It is a learning situation in which the cogni-

zable object intermediates the cognitive actors – teacher

on the one hand and students on the other” (Freire, 2018,

p. 79). As a social constructivist, I believe that knowle-

dge is context bound and students construct social mea-

ning-making processes based on experience and critical

reflection.

Finally, I explore the reasons why I chose this particular

theory. Transformative learning lures educators mainly

because of its possibilities to change mindsets and impact

societies in the long term. Moreover, I consider myself

a social constructivist. I believe that knowledge is so-

cially constructed through interaction with the environ-

ment, materials and different stakeholders of the learning

process. Social reflective practice is essential within this

approach. To me, transformational learning is essentially

a process to construct meaningful learning. This meanin-

gful learning that is fostered by transformational learning

enables a state of consciousness conducive to processes

of analysis and learning. Additionally, I align with the

idea that transformative learning is based on a particu-

lar philosophical worldview (Taylor, 2008). For both,

my professional practice and research interests, a sound

worldview that shapes and informs pedagogical decisions

is paramount.

Indigenous knowledge. From an Indigenous perspective,

learning implies a holistic approach where body, soul,

mind, feelings, nature, and the sociocultural environment

interact in order to create a context for learning to flou-

rish. Likewise, storytelling and orality represent corners-

tones as traditions and identity traits are celebrated and

passed on from one generation to another – learning is

established at a community level. In other words, lear-

ning is conveyed through stories and elders’ wisdom. It is

evident that learning is heavily rooted in social and group

interactions with a profound connection to nature and the

environment in which societies develop. All of the above

are some underlying cornerstones of Indigenous knowle-

dge (Native Americans, Kunas, Bri Bris, Aztecs, Métis,

Ngäbes, First Nations, Mestizos, Gauchos, among many

others).

Now, how are these perspectives connected to adult edu-

cation? First, it is necessary to clarify that there is a clear

tendency to administer, provide, and engage in learning

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Bula, O. Adult learning: Salient Conditions and Non-traditional Approaches.

systems mainly from the Western pedagogical outlook.

To exemplify this idea, Merriam et al., (2007) point out

that “…Western notions of adult learning dominate is

evidenced by the use of Western textbooks, journals, and

conference proceedings in academic adult education pro-

grams not only in North America but in Asia and Africa”

(p. 218). Moreover, Merriam et al., (2007) offer general

guidelines to connect these perspectives with adult edu-

cation that also contradict Western interpretations. These

concepts can be abridged as follows: interdependence of

learning, communal nature of learning settings, holistic

approach conducive to learning, and informality deeply

entrenched in day-to-day circumstances.

I do believe Indigenous knowledge to be organic, gene-

rated by and from locals which provide a sense of iden-

tity and empowerment since knowledge is being socially

constructed with an important degree of righteousness

and paying close attention to the connection with natu-

re, not exported or imposed by external forces or entities

whatsoever. Furthermore, I have always been a fan of a

popular story told by elders in Limon and Colon (Cari-

bbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama), about a spider

who teaches kids and teenagers the value of cleverness

and cunning.

Anancy is a Spider. Anancy is a Man. Anancy is West

Indian. Anancy is African. Brotha Anancy is to teach you

right! Popular saying

Further to the discussion on Indigenosity, Sears and Cair-

ns (2010) attempt to extend basic concepts by considering

the following core characteristics of Indigenosity: fosters

a pleasant harmony between living creatures and their ha-

bitats, recognizes the relevance of traditional knowledge

through storytelling, art, music, traditions, and celebra-

tions, considers spirituality to be an important element

of life, informs community and its members, and cons-

titutes a force to fight back against Western impositions.

Then again, orality, informality, a profound respect for

elders and the environment, spirituality, and storytelling

are favored over written, scientific, and formal ways to

understand learning. It is a way to interpret and convey

knowledge and learning over generations.

Pedagogy of solidarity. Being a radical and a disguised

constructivist, Paulo Freire argues that pedagogy of soli-

darity seeks for a bigger dream, a fair society where one

must pursue justice and equality. From my viewpoint,

the pedagogy of solidarity draws on some basic tenets.

First, humans are historical human beings. As sociohis-

torical beings, we find ourselves constantly defining and

re-defining our existence (Freire, 2014). Next, education

responds to a sense of imperfectness. To this end, Freire

(2014) stressed that “I am sure that from a metaphysical

point of view what explains the reason for the existence

of education is fundamentally the fact of being an un-

completed being and having the consciousness of this

uncompletedness” (p. 16). Later, one can conclude that

there is no such thing as neutrality when it comes to edu-

cation. Educational systems respond to political paradig-

ms and economic forces not to diverge from the mains-

tream. Educational practitioners need to be reflexive so

as to question the implications of established curricula.

Additionally, identity is pivotal within Freire’s discour-

se. There is no construction or exchange of knowledge

without a solid and profound respect for one’s identity.

To exemplify this concept, Freire (2014) commented that

“…if you follow me, you destroy me. The best way for

you to understand me is to reinvent me and not to try to

become adapted to me. Experience cannot be exported,

it can only be reinvented” (p. 17). Finally, the concept of

respect also constitutes an underlying tenet of this peda-

gogy. For Freire, respect is the cornerstone of any educa-

tional exchange. The Pedagogy of Solidarity does revolve

around the idea that respect, identity, consciousness, and

social justice must be observed in educational systems.

Salient Conditions and Non-traditional

Approaches

Adult education influences and is shaped, at the same

time, by the social context and idiosyncrasy of nations.

The sociocultural reality is directly related to the pro-

vision and promotion of adult education. Globalization,

technology, economic factors, environmental awareness,

demographics, geographical aspects and mindsets play

a significant role when it comes to the organization of

adult education and its subtleties. Engaging in reflection

on how non-traditional approaches inform adult learning

is a necessary and ongoing process in this field.

Additionally, when one considers a perspective, other

viewpoints are not necessarily taken into consideration

– that is, when possible solutions, theories, allegations,

and conceptions are appraised, other equally relevant or

perhaps even better inferences, attitudes, tenets, and ex-

planations are not pondered and these choices have atta-

ched implications for specific conditions and approaches.

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Likewise, a brilliant concept that is sitting with me is the

fact that categorization implies important degrees of abs-

traction (Sears & Cairns, 2010). The example provided

by these authors is the South-Up Map. There is an inheri-

ted and sociocultural tendency to see and organize things

in a way, usually the dominant perspective and the mas-

ter narrative’s way. Sears and Cairns stressed the concept

that there is no up or down in the space and proposed

the idea of an inverted map of the world, another way of

seeing things and considering other social, economic, and

political perspectives, learning included. It is necessary

that the political, cultural, and educational implications

of such a view in the societies’ status quo be pondered.

Moreover, it is necessary to go over general characteris-

tics that can be implied from these salient conditions and

non-traditional approaches and their connection to lear-

ning. First, learning is multifaceted. A myriad of cultural,

economic, and political elements is intertwined and has

a direct impact on where, how, when, why, and what is

learned. Additionally, learning is holistic. In that sense,

it looks for an in-depth understanding of learning proces-

ses while taking into account all its nuances – there is a

sense of interdependence that involves several stakehol-

ders in learning contexts. When referring to this, Merriam

et al., (2007) have said that “identity, self-concept, and

self-esteem are developed and enhanced only in relation

to others” (p. 237).

Conclusion

This section goes over the conclusions. One has to re-

cognize that potential critiques to non-traditional approa-

ches include the conception that most of these learning

viewpoints could not be considered formal theories per

se. Sears and Cairns developed a five-step process of

formal theorizing. These can be summarized as follows:

logical rigor, empirical rigor, conceptual rigor, second-or-

der questions, and relation to existing knowledge (Sears

& Cairns, 2010). Compared to this framework, some

perspectives discussed above might not be considered

formal theories – perhaps from the western perspective

– and yet they provide thought-provoking elements and

implications to be considered as formal theories.

There is also a caveat. A significant limitation of this pa-

per is the fact it contains omissions that might have re-

sulted in a different construct. Relevant perspectives that

were not considered for this discussion include Feminism

Perspectives, Web-Based Learning, Queer Theory, Con-

fucian Way of Thinking, Hindu Perspectives, First Na-

tions Treaties, Maori Concepts, Islamic Perspectives, Cri-

tical Race Theory, and Aztec Perspectives among many

other perceptions and learning beliefs. Best-known for his

awe-inspiring poetry, Ruben Dario formed part of leading

educational philosophers in Latin America who advoca-

ted for full inclusion and consideration of different pers-

pectives in the realm of education. With this in mind, it is

relevant to consider the concept of strengthening learning

theories, approaches and tenets by including other pers-

pectives. The consideration of different perspectives will

not only enhance non-traditional approaches themselves;

it will also provide diverse knowledge and implications

that might lead to new information and ways to imple-

ment professional practice and internalize schemata. In

this regard, Merriam et al., (2007) have commented that

“what is important is that by becoming acquainted with

other ways of learning and knowing we enrich our un-

derstanding of learning, and ultimately our practice with

adults” (p. 225). Delving into and considering salient

conditions and non-traditional approaches constitute a

must in the field of adult learning.

In addition, meaning making is built up through perso-

nal and social experiences closely tied to the communi-

ty and its context. Meaning making is a social construct

and, at the same time, a personal attempt to purposefully

understand life within a community and its subtleties.

Building on the relevance of community for these pers-

pectives, Merriam and Kim (2008) posited that “from this

communal perspective, learning is the responsibility of

all members of the community because it is through this

learning that the community itself can develop” (p. 73).

Also, creativity and motivational aspects are important

to learning, primarily to spirituality (Merriam & Kim,

2008).

The last twenty years have brought a much-needed recog-

nition that adult learning is multidimensional (Merriam et

al., 2007). This constitutes a relevant takeaway. Moving

away from the vision that cognitive processing is the uni-

que and most important element when acquiring knowle-

dge has brought thought-provoking constructs such as

spirituality, feelings, environmental awareness, emotions,

fears, and experiences to a more holistic, in-depth vision

of learning. As a result, the field of adult learning is in-

fluenced by the sociohistorical context where it takes pla-

ce. Learning in society provides broader concepts where

the current realities of the workplace, educational sys-

tems, economic vicissitudes and life situations directly

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impact the status quo of learning in adulthood. “… [I]t

appears that adult learning research and theory building

are expanding to include more than just an individual,

cognitive understanding of learning… [L]earning occurs

in their intersections with each other [mind, body, soul,

emotions and fears, among others]” (Merriam, 2008, p.

97). It is precisely this richness in the diversity of con-

texts that makes the field of adult learning a multidimen-

sional phenomenon.

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