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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in

Language Learning Settings

Olmedo Bula Villalobos

Universidad Estatal a Distancia, Centro de Idiomas. San José, Costa Rica.

obula@uned.ac.cr

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7304-0076

Abstract

Objective. The aim of this paper is to problematize speaking anxiety in order to have a solid understanding of this situation

and its potential implications within language learning contexts. Another purpose is to explore the literature on strategies used

by learners to handle speaking anxiety. Likewise, the paper is to offer an overarching panorama of such a phenomenon within

the field. Methodology. The paper adopted an exploratory methodology that included a systematic revision of information

on the phenomenon. Analysis of Results. The first section problematizes speaking anxiety and discusses the influence of

this phenomenon in the learning process. The second part establishes social anxiety as a general construct to the discussion.

The following sections discuss perspectives on anxiety and foreign language speaking anxiety as pivotal elements that pro-

vide the gist of the paper. Next, the paper offers a review of the literature on strategies to reduce speaking anxiety. After that,

a much-needed section on criticism to speaking anxiety provides opposing views. Conclusions. The main conclusion establi-

shes speaking anxiety as a significant issue that impacts students’ performance in language learning settings.

Keywords: Problematizing, speaking anxiety, language learning strategies, language learning.

Resumen

Objetivo. El objetivo del artículo es problematizar la ansiedad al hablar para tener una comprensión sólida de esta situación

y posibles implicaciones dentro de contextos de aprendizaje de idiomas. Otro propósito es explorar literatura sobre las es-

trategias utilizadas por personas estudiantes para manejar la ansiedad al hablar. Asimismo, el artículo pretende ofrecer un

panorama general de dicho fenómeno dentro del campo. Metodología. El estudio adoptó una metodología exploratoria que

incluyo una revisión sistemática de la información sobre el fenómeno. Análisis de resultados. La primera sección proble-

matiza la ansiedad al hablar y discute la influencia de este fenómeno en el proceso de aprendizaje. La segunda parte esta-

blece la ansiedad social como un constructo general de discusión. Las siguientes secciones analizan las perspectivas en la

ansiedad y ansiedad al hablar un idioma extranjero como elementos fundamentales que proporcionan la esencia del artículo.

A continuación, el artículo ofrece una revisión de la literatura sobre estrategias para reducir la ansiedad al hablar. Además, una

sección necesaria sobre la crítica a la ansiedad de hablar proporciona puntos de vista opuestos. Conclusiones. La conclusión

principal establece que la ansiedad al hablar es un problema significativo que afecta el desempeño de estudiantes en entornos

de aprendizaje de idiomas.

Palabras clave: Problemática, ansiedad al hablar, estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas, aprendizaje de idiomas.

Problemática de la ansiedad al hablar en

contextos de aprendizaje de i diomas

Referencia/ reference:

Bula, O. (2023). Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings. Yulök Revista de Innovación Académica,

Vol.7 (1), 107-119. https://doi.org/10.47633/yulk.v7i1.576

Recibido: 30 de junio del 2022 Aceptado: 14 de diciembre del 2022

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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

Introduction

One problem that impacts students’ performance is spea-

king anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1986). It is thus important

to have a deep understanding of such a phenomenon and

its implications within the language learning process and

milieu. Speaking anxiety has the potential to influence

foreign language learning (Horwitz et al., 1986). In addi-

tion, research indicates that students learning English as

a Foreign Language, hereafter referred to as EFL, expe-

rience different degrees of speaking anxiety when com-

municating (Horwitz et al., 1986). Moreover, a negative

correlation between anxiety and foreign language perfor-

mance has been previously indicated (Gregersen, 2003).

Arguably, speaking anxiety influences students in a more

negative way when communicating. This phenomenon

causes weaknesses and lacks that interfere with students’

language learning process. For example, students’ ability

to perform effectively in conversation and other commu-

nicative tasks is jeopardized. Students’ speaking anxiety

does not let them fully comprehend specific types of fee-

dback, for example recasting. A major difficulty relates

to the relationship between content and intelligibility.

Even though students might have a solid argument or

concept, their speaking anxiety may interfere with the

delivery of the message. Additionally, speaking anxiety

poses challenges to the acquisition and development of

linguistic features and might have a direct effect on stu-

dents’ language learning process. The specific types of

information, data, and results derived from this inquiry

are meant to increase the knowledge of the topic to better

comprehend it. Likewise, these constructs are to provide

useful information to explore ways of becoming aware

and understanding this phenomenon within this context

and parameters.

The aim of this paper is to problematize speaking anxiety

in order to have a more solid understanding of this situa-

tion and its potential implications within language lear-

ning contexts. Another purpose is to explore the literature

on strategies used by learners to handle speaking anxiety.

In addition, the paper is to offer an overarching panora-

ma of such a phenomenon within the field. It comprises

seven sections containing relevant considerations and in-

sights. Next, a thorough discussion is offered to synthesi-

ze and gauge salient concepts and implications. Framed

within a general qualitative framework, this paper adopts

an exploratory methodology. This type of methodology is

intended to provide a deep understanding of the pheno-

menon within particular contexts and to identify potential

issues and new concepts (Hernández et al., 2010). The

methodology included a systematic revision of articles

and data on the topic.

Problematizing Speaking Anxiety

Understanding the implications and subtleties of spea-

king anxiety within the language context becomes a must

mainly for the potential impact on the learning process.

This task is crucial as speaking underlies almost all the

activities carried out by teachers and students in an EFL

class (Bailey, 2005). The body of literature reviewed es-

tablished speaking anxiety as a key issue that interferes

with students in language learning and EFL contexts

(Abedini & Chalak, 2017; He, 2017; Sadighi & Dastpak,

2017).

Previous research does highlight anxiety and speaking

anxiety in EFL contexts as significant issues. First, it

is important to mention that a considerable number of

studies establish speaking anxiety as a situation-speci-

fic anxiety. In a study on speaking inhibiting factors for

Iranian EFL adult learners, Abedini and Chalak (2017)

concluded that anxiety constituted a significant element

that limited students’ communicative skills. Now, from

the results of research on language classroom anxiety in

Greek EFL learners’ diaries, Gkonou (2013) concluded

that anxiety fluctuated over time, hence “proving that lan-

guage anxiety is a situation-specific as well as a dynamic

variable in L2 contexts” (Gkonou, 2013, p. 51). Similarly,

Cordero and Morales (2016) identified anxiety as a pivo-

tal factor that interfered with and hindered EFL students’

speaking performance in a study with adult learners in a

Costa Rican university setting. Consistent with Cordero

and Morales’ (2016) findings, Shumin (2002) also noted

anxiety as an important factor. Furthermore, when explai-

ning this concept, Shumin (2002) stressed the importance

of anxiety and its impact on EFL oral production by sta-

ting that “speaking a foreign language in public, especia-

lly in front of native speakers, is often anxiety-provoking.

Sometimes, extreme anxiety occurs when EFL learners

become tongue-tied or lost for words in an unexpected

situation, which often leads to discouragement” (p. 206).

Interestingly, Gkonou (2013) proposed that there are

causes directly related to the classroom environment and

conducive to anxiety. These “major stressors” (Gkonou,

2013, p. 59) are input, extrinsic motivation, exams, the

language teacher, skills, class mistakes, and dependen-

ce on marks. Moreover, Gkonou (2013) stated that “lin-

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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

guistic factors as well as socio-psychological barriers

combined to induce anxiety within the learners” (p. 59).

Likewise, Foreign Language Anxiety, a more encompas-

sing construct, was pinpointed as a significant feature that

interfered with students’ language learning process (Tran

et al., 2013). Finally, Gkonou (2013) suggested the need

to further investigate anxiety and individual differences.

“Future research could be orientated towards a more tho-

rough investigation of the way individual difference fac-

tors intertwine with anxiety…” (Gkonou, 2013, p. 65).

Now the influence of speaking anxiety in the learning

process is established. The first element is that of concre-

teness. Students with high levels of debilitating anxiety

provided more concrete messages than their non-anxious

counterparts (Horwitz et al., 1986). This implies that the

degree of interpretation and elaboration of the messages

was diminished because of anxiety levels. Building on

this explanation, Horwitz et al. (1986) stated that “…the

more anxious student tends to avoid attempting difficult

or personal messages in the target language” (p. 126).

Secondly, anxiety interfered with university students’

impromptu speaking skills. On this concept, Horwitz

et al., 1986 commented that “difficulty in speaking in

class is probably the most frequently cited concern of

the anxious foreign language students seeking help at the

LSC” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 126). Specifically, anxie-

ty affected students in impromptu activities or activities

with little preparation. To illustrate this point, Horwitz et

al. (1986) asserted that “students often report that they

feel fairly comfortable responding to a drill or delivering

prepared speeches in their foreign language class but tend

to ‘freeze’ in a role-play situation” (p. 126). Based on this

information, it can be concluded spontaneous speaking

activities and real-life tasks are responsible for significant

degrees of anxiety among students. This shows the im-

pact of speaking anxiety and how it influences students’

communicative competence when doing role-plays and

extemporaneous activities that mirror day-to-day con-

versations where language is used for communicative

purposes. In this sense, Horwitz et al., 1986 pinpointed

the difficulty on anxious students, “since speaking in the

target language seems to be the most threatening aspect

of foreign language learning, the current emphasis on

the development of communicative competence poses

particularly great difficulties for the anxious student”

(Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 132). How anxiety influences

students’ speaking skills has received a considerable

degree of attention from scholars, universities, research

projects, and professional discussion since it entails a

myriad of biological, psychological, linguistic, historical,

and sociocultural aspects that are fundamental for human

interaction and survival. Even though it is not exclusively

related to speaking, anxiety might influence and contri-

bute to Krashen’s affective filter, an issue that impedes

second-language acquisition (Krashen, 1982).

The third aspect is the connection between speaking

anxiety and linguistics. In discussing this idea, Horwitz

et al. (1986) manifested that “anxious students may also

have difficulty grasping the content of a target language

message. Many LSC clients claim that they have little or

no idea of what the teacher is saying in extended target

language utterances” (p. 126). Thus, the symbiotic rela-

tionship between listening and speaking is present one

more time. On this relation, Horwitz et al., 1986 claimed

that “anxious language learners also complain of difficul-

ties discriminating the sounds and structures of a target

language message” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 126). Clear-

ly, mispronouncing a sound might not represent such an

issue when attempting to communicate a message, whe-

reas a complex grammar error or misunderstood meaning

may seriously jeopardize the communicative intention

and lead to breakdowns, pitfalls, and conundrums. Fina-

lly, this review provided robust evidence related to the

existence of speaking anxiety as a major problem within

EFL contexts.

The fourth element is performance within academic and

social environments. When explaining how the construct

of communication apprehension, a conceptual foundation

of foreign language classroom anxiety, is significant to

foreign language anxiety, specifically in relation to spea-

king, Horwitz et al. (1986) have posited that “difficulty in

speaking in dyads or groups (oral communication anxie-

ty) or in public (‘stage fright’), or in listening to or lear-

ning a spoken message (receiver anxiety) are all manifes-

tations of communication apprehension” (p. 127). Fina-

lly, Horwitz et al. (1986) specifically stated how foreign

language anxiety influenced particular moments in the

classroom “they [students] spoke of ‘freezing’ in class,

standing outside the door trying to summon up enough

courage to enter, and going back prior to tests” (p. 128).

Based on the previous information, it can be determined

that speaking anxiety constitutes a problem for students

within language learning settings, EFL contexts included.

The implications of this phenomenon are closely related

to the performance of students in the language learning

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and acquisition process. These constructs represent fun-

damentals to problematize speaking anxiety.

Social Anxiety

In this part of the paper, social anxiety is discussed as an

overarching element that contributes to the present analy-

sis.

Generalities. Human beings experience anxiety in day-

to-day situations to varying degrees. The problem arises

when this behavior impedes students’ optimal performan-

ce in communicative tasks. Social anxiety encompasses

a fear of scrutiny by peers, which might lead to rejec-

tion and avoidance in different social situations, learning

included. Many cultural, physical, social, and personal

subtleties are involved in the speaking process. When

defining speaking as a productive language skill, Bailey

(2005) noted that “speaking consists of producing syste-

matic verbal utterances to convey meaning… Speaking is

such a fundamental human behavior that we don’t stop to

analyze it unless there is something noticeable about it”

(p. 2). According to research, social anxiety affects and

influences students’ speaking skills (Koba, Ogawa, &

Wilkinson, 2000; Tsui, 1996).

Distinctive features. Social anxiety is a pervasive type

of mental phobia including a 12-month prevalence in

about 18% of individuals (Stein & Stein, 2008). Students

who experience social anxiety tend to manifest a degree

of shyness and usually withdraw themselves intentiona-

lly when interacting in new settings and with unknown

peers. They might even experience physical or emotional

symptoms. Next, Stein and Stein (2008) noted that social

anxiety “…has an early age of onset—by age 11 years in

about 50% and by age 20 years in about 80% of indivi-

duals” (p. 1115). This phenomenon starts at an early age

and persists in adulthood. Some causes of social anxie-

ty in the EFL classroom are: “fear of making mistakes;

fear of being negatively evaluated; limited vocabulary

knowledge; lack of practice; fear of being the focus of

attention” (Sadighi & Dastpak, 2017, p. 113). Fear cons-

titutes a physiological threat or sensation that something

wrong is likely to happen – that is, there is a strong sense

of not being adequate.

Diagnostic criteria. Brown and O’Leary (2001) have es-

tablished some general criteria. The first element is an

exaggerated degree of anxiety and uneasiness over a con-

siderable period during several activities. The second cri-

terion is an impediment to manage worry appropriately.

The third aspect is the connection of anxiety with these

disorders: muscle tension, sleep disturbance, restlessness,

irritability, and fatigue. The fourth factor is the impair-

ment caused by anxiety in social manifestations. The last

criterion claims that this disorder is not triggered by the

effects of any specific substance or medical condition

(Brown & O’Leary, 2001). These concepts are pertinent

considerations of social anxiety.

Perspectives in Anxiety

This section goes over the main perspectives in anxiety

and provides a more central view to the discussion. First,

a definition of anxiety is provided. Next, the perspectives

in anxiety are explored. Horwitz (2013) stated that anxie-

ty is “a syndrome that occurs independently of any unique

qualities of the patients who carry its symptoms or of the

period of human history when it appeared” (p. 2). Closely

related to this concept, Horwitz et al. (1986) posited that

“anxiety is the subjective feeling of tension, apprehen-

sion, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal

of the automatic nervous system” (p. 125). MacIntyre and

Gardner (1994) provide a more encompassing definition

within the field of foreign language, “language anxiety

can be defined as the feeling of tension and apprehension

specifically associated with second language contexts, in-

cluding speaking, listening, and learning” (MacIntyre &

Gardner, 1994, p. 284). When analyzing these definitions,

it can be concluded that a feeling of tension is a subjective

phenomenon that interferes with students’ ability to speak

and perform. Finally, foreign language speaking anxiety

represents a phenomenon leading to the difficulty or im-

possibility that students experience when attempting to

speak and function in a foreign language.

Anxiety as a personality trait. Trait anxiety is a gene-

ral personality feature that some people exhibit as some-

thing constant in their day-to-day experiences; they are

anxious by nature when performing in different contexts.

MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) believed that “trait anxie-

ty may be defined as an individual’s likelihood of beco-

ming anxious in any situation” (MacIntyre & Gardner,

1991, p. 87). People with trait anxiety might be anxious

or nervous when performing different tasks in different

situations. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) contended that

“trait anxiety has been shown to impair cognitive func-

tioning, to disrupt memory, to lead to avoidance of be-

haviors, and to have several other effects” (MacIntyre &

Gardner, 1991, p. 87). When discussing the characteris-

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tics of trait anxiety, Leal et al. (2017) claimed that “trait

anxiety is, therefore, relatively stable over time and con-

sidered a central characteristic of patients with anxiety

disorders, as they present higher trait anxiety in compari-

son to healthy individuals” (p. 148). A person exhibiting

trait anxiety might not be able to perform under regular

circumstances. In addition, people with trait anxiety will

react differently – that is, personality traits have different

connections and reactions to circumstances. Remarkably,

MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) affirmed that “for most in-

dividuals, some situations will provoke anxiety whereas

others will promote feelings of relaxation. Within a large

group of people, the situations provoking anxiety will di-

ffer, even among individuals showing similar trait anxie-

ty scores” (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991, p. 88). Specific

features of the learners’ personality determine the reac-

tions to a given situation. Finally, the concept of time also

plays a significant role in trait anxiety; “trait anxiety es-

sentially is the idea that future anxiety propensities can be

inferred from past anxiety experiences by the assumption

of a continuity in the frequency and the intensity of anxie-

ty behavior from past to future” (Reiss, 1997, p. 211).

Interestingly, there is a connection between trait and state

anxiety “… trait anxiety refers to a trait of personality,

describing individual differences related to a tendency to

present state anxiety” (Leal et al., 2017, p. 148). Research

on the topic also established the connection; “in VMST,

trait anxiety correlated to state anxiety (psychological pa-

rameters) in all test phases” (Leal et al., 2017, p. 147).

Reiss established the connection too; “trait anxiety, or a

propensity to experience state anxiety, cannot be directly

observed but is manifested as state anxiety when stressed

is experienced” (Reiss, 1997, p. 204).

Anxiety as an emotional state. A second perspective

considers anxiety as an emotional state, the here-and-

now approach. In certain individuals, it is a response tri-

ggered by a specific situation, for example, performing

in a role-play in front of a class, “state anxiety is appre-

hension experienced at a particular moment in time, for

example, prior to taking examinations” (MacIntyre &

Gardner, 1991, p. 90). For Leal et al. (2017), state anxie-

ty “… reflects the psychological and physiological tran-

sient reactions directly related to adverse situations in a

specific moment” (p. 148). In comparing these previous

constructs, Horwitz (2001) posited that “…trait anxiety is

conceptualized as a relatively stable personality charac-

teristic while state anxiety is seen as a response to a par-

ticular anxiety provoking stimulus such as an important

test” (p. 113). Stressful situations or moments are a sa-

lient feature of state anxiety. For MacIntyre and Gardner

(1991), “state anxiety is a blend of the trait and situational

approaches” (p. 90). When establishing the connection

between these perspectives, Reiss (1997) concluded that

“the concept of trait anxiety requires an objective spe-

cification of the circumstances under which the inferred

propensity for state anxiety can be observed” (p. 211).

Research also established a correlation to state anxiety. In

this sense, MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) said that “the

moderately strong correlation usually found between sta-

te and trait anxiety suggests that increased levels of trait

anxiety are associated with higher state anxiety” (MacIn-

tyre & Gardner, 1991, p. 90).

Anxiety as a situation-specific construct. A third

approach deals with situation-specific anxieties. Parti-

cularly, the term specific anxiety or situation-specific

anxiety has been used to describe language learning si-

tuations since; “situation specific studies can offer more

to the understanding of anxiety because the respondents

are queried about various aspects of the situation. A key

difference is that respondents are required to make at-

tributions of anxiety to particular sources” (MacIntyre

& Gardner, 1991, p. 91). Also, MacIntyre and Gardner

(1991) imply that research results offer reliable data when

using this approach, “it seems plausible to suggest that

the more meaningful and consistent results have emer-

ged from the latter group [situation-specific anxiety]” (p.

92). Additionally, the classification of foreign language

anxiety as a situation-specific type of anxiety is discus-

sed by Horwitz (2010); “typically referred to as language

anxiety or foreign language anxiety (FLA), this anxiety

is categorized as a situation-specific anxiety, similar in

type to other familiar manifestations of anxiety such as

stage fright or test anxiety” (Horwitz, 2010, p. 154). This

concept is essential in terms of research purposes as it

establishes foreign language anxiety as a situation-speci-

fic anxiety. Finally, this approach has been criticized for

both its broadness and specificity. MacIntyre and Gard-

ner (1991) pointed out that “a criticism of this approach

is that the situation under consideration can be defined

very broadly, more narrowly, or quite specifically” (Ma-

cIntyre & Gardner, 1991, p. 91). It can be argued that the

situation-specific type of anxiety is not established. To

this end, MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) explained that “it

is the researcher’s responsibility to define a situation that

is sufficiently specific to be meaningful for the purpose at

hand, yet to have reasonable generality to permit genera-

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lizations” (p. 91). However, other authors have identified

situation-specific anxieties. These anxieties are commu-

nication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation, and

test anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1986). Likewise, research

offered evidence that language anxiety is an independent

situation-specific anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1986). Finally,

authors suggest that foreign language anxiety should be

considered as situation-specific, trait, and state anxiety

(MacIntyre, 2007). These ideas are germane perspectives

to the discussion in relation to anxiety.

The implications of these perspectives to the language

learning context are now explored. As a language teacher

and a researcher, the author aligns with the concept that

anxiety can be considered an emotional state and can be

triggered by a specific situation such as an exam or an

oral presentation. Nonetheless, all the perspectives pre-

sent issues and complexities to learning contexts. For

example, a student exhibiting anxiety as a personal trait

might find functioning properly in impromptu settings or

scenarios with little preparation challenging. Furthermo-

re, students may get anxious about unexpected activities

or exams involving complex mental abilities. Thus, the

degree of preparation and scaffolding becomes essen-

tial to lower potential insecurities that could generate

different levels of anxiety. Furthermore, it is relevant to

foster non-threatening environments where students feel

safe and within learning circumstances conducive to lan-

guage acquisition and proper functioning. Anxiety poses

concerns to language teachers in EFL environments as

it encompasses a subjective phenomenon with diverse

behaviors and attitudes that impact the language class in

different forms. Depending on the specific situation, the

language teacher might not be prepared to approach such

a phenomenon in an effective way. These concepts are re-

levant implications of the perspectives on anxiety within

foreign language learning contexts.

Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety

This section analyzes foreign language speaking anxiety

as a pivotal construct within the field of anxiety and its

influence on language learning settings.

Generalities. When defining foreign language classroom

anxiety, Horwitz et al. (1986) posited that “anxiety is the

subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness,

and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic

nervous system” (p. 125). In addition, Horwitz et al.

(1986) indicated that “…we conceive foreign language

anxiety as a distinct complex of self-perceptions, belie-

fs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language

learning arising from the uniqueness of the language lear-

ning process” (p. 128).

Evidence of foreign language speaking anxiety.

The body of literature related to foreign language anxiety

provides evidence that students have experienced anxiety

in EFL contexts, speaking included (Horwitz et al., 1986;

MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991). The literature to be discus-

sed in this section can be organized into an overarching

category.

The literature dealt with studies based on anxiety as a si-

tuation-specific approach and the foreign language class-

room anxiety theory proposed by Horwitz et al. (1986).

Three interrelated components served as the underlying

basis of this theory. The first component is communica-

tion apprehension, which entails a cognitive awareness of

the difficulty of functioning properly in a foreign langua-

ge. A key element to consider is that of communication in

a language that has not been fully mastered, among the

many other concerns related to oral production (Horwitz

et al., 1986). The second factor is test anxiety. It relates

to a fear of failure in examinations in the language class.

A pivotal element is that oral exams have a real poten-

tial to cause anxiety and that they are a common feature

in class (Horwitz et al., 1986). The third element is fear

of negative evaluation. It implies a negative perception

in a different range of social activities. Negative evalua-

tions of other stakeholders in the communicative process

interfere with students’ performance and competence in

the foreign language (Horwitz et al., 1986). Horwitz et

al. (1986) and Horwitz (2016) have provided evidence

that supports foreign language classroom anxiety theory.

A study conducted by Çağatay (2015) examined the con-

nection between foreign language speaking anxiety, po-

tential reasons and solutions in a Turkish EFL environ-

ment. Findings revealed four major concepts. The first

one showed that students did experience moderate levels

of foreign language speaking anxiety. This study provi-

des evidence as these results established foreign language

speaking anxiety as an issue in EFL milieus: “A total sco-

re more than 60 demonstrated a high level of anxiety; a

total score ranged from 31 to 60 presented a moderate le-

vel of speaking anxiety…” (Çağatay, 2015, p. 652). Even

though these results entailed a quantitative approach, it is

precisely this evidence that corroborates the connection.

A second pertinent finding was that of gender differences.

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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

Interestingly, female students tend to be more anxious

when speaking English as a foreign language (Çağatay,

2015). This study is in accordance with the results of Luo

(2014), indicating that female students were found to be

more anxious than their male counterparts when spea-

king Chinese as a foreign language. A caveat, Çağatay

(2015) suggested the idea that this result might have its

genesis in Turkish cultural background. Gender influence

on foreign language speaking anxiety might represent a

sensitive issue in specific types of societies or cultural

groups. The third concept provides data on the connec-

tion between proficiency level and speaking anxiety. The

proficiency level did not influence the students’ level of

anxiety (Çağatay, 2015). This is enlightening in the sense

that language teachers might be inclined to believe that

the students’ proficiency level and level of anxiety are

inextricably intertwined. The fourth was that speaking

with native speakers of the language made a significant

difference when compared to other types of speakers

(Çağatay, 2015). This piece of evidence is significant as

it is closely related to impromptu speaking and real com-

munication in EFL contexts.

Another significant element to take into consideration

is that of students’ perception of the foreign language.

Luo (2014) established a positive correlation between

speaking anxiety and students’ perception of the Chinese

language. Interestingly, Luo (2014) reported a negative

correlation between speaking anxiety and self-perceived

language ability. This suggests that students’ perception

of the language might influence their speaking skills.

Similar to these studies, Yalçın and İnceçay (2014) pro-

posed that the feeling of success and preparedness tends

to lower anxiety: “Moreover, it was found that the more

the students were familiar with the activities, the more

relaxed they felt in speaking” (Yalçın & İnceçay, 2014,

p. 2624).

Tellingly, literature established language anxiety in a

more general sense. MacIntyre and Gardner (1989) sta-

ted that language anxiety develops as students encounter

frequent, negative experiences in the language classroom.

Language anxiety might have a debilitating influence on

students’ learning ability and performance (MacIntyre

& Gardner, 1989). This construct implies that language

anxiety is framed in emotional states and situation-spe-

cific constructs.

The following figure illustrates the connection that links

anxiety with anxiety perspectives, social anxiety, and fo-

reign language speaking anxiety.

As observed in the figure, social anxiety offers a general

panorama to situate the reader within the field – social

anxiety informs the perspectives of anxiety. Along with

the perspectives of anxiety, foreign language speaking

anxiety constitutes a major element that is pivotal to the

discussion within the field of anxiety. The figure offers a

more encompassing visual representation of the connec-

tion of these elements.

Figure 1. Connection of anxiety with anxiety perspectives, social anxiety and foreign language speaking anxiety.

Source: Elaborated by the researcher.

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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

Strategy Use to Reduce Speaking Anxiety

It is evident that speaking anxiety represents a major is-

sue that interferes with students in language learning se-

ttings and EFL contexts based on the literature reviewed.

However, this did not fully clarify the strategies that stu-

dents use to handle speaking anxiety in language learning

settings. This section of the paper goes over literature on

reducing speaking anxiety and its implications within

EFL and language learning contexts.

There are two key elements of language learning strate-

gies that aid to the discussion and are essential for re-

search purposes. First, language learning strategies entail

an internal process that poses issues for students to verba-

lize and for researchers to determine. This is paramount

as researchers depend heavily on students’ skills and dis-

position to share their insights. Oxford (2002) asserted

that “observational methods are often difficult to employ

because many learning strategies are internal and thus

invisible to observers. Therefore, much learning strate-

gy research depends on learners’ willingness and ability

to describe their internal behaviors, both cognitive and

affective” (Oxford, 2002, p. 125). The second aspect is

the context of the inquiry. In relation to this factor, Oxford

(2002) posited that “by conducting studies with clear ins-

tructions in non threatening circumstances, researchers

have found that many or most L2 learners are capable

of remembering their learning strategies and describing

them when asked” (Oxford, 2002, p. 125). Arguably, a

non-threatening context might be conducive to a state of

cooperation.

When discussing the results of research on learning stra-

tegies, Oxford (2002) provides a classification for orga-

nization purposes. The first one is lists: “… L2 resear-

chers made lists of strategies presumed to be essential

for all good language learners” (Oxford, 2002, p. 125).

Research shows the use of lists with learning strategies in

EFL and ESL contexts (Lessard-Clouston, 1997). The se-

cond category is effectiveness of strategy use: “Research

indicates that appropriate use of language learning strate-

gies, which include dozens or even hundreds of possible

behaviors, results in improved L2 proficiency overall, or

in specific language skill areas” (Oxford, 2002, p. 126).

The third one is orchestration by effective learners. Effec-

tive L2 learners resort to a variety of strategies in relation

to the communicative task (Oxford, 2002). Influence on

strategy use is another aspect. Elements like motivation,

sex, cultural background, and age are factors that influen-

ce the use of a learning strategy (Oxford, 2002). For ins-

tance, the particularities of an exercise and learners’ ex-

perience determine the use of a specific strategy (Oxford,

2002). Finally, Oxford (2002) developed a system “to

place strategies into a more coherent and comprehensive

typology and to redress the woeful lack of research em-

phasis given to social and affective strategies” (p. 128).

The strategy groups of the system are affective (laughter

and meditation), social (asking questions and becoming

culturally aware), metacognitive (checking errors and

paying attention), memory-related (grouping and rhy-

ming), general cognitive (reasoning and analyzing), and

compensatory (guessing meaning and using synonyms)

(Oxford, 2002).

Speaking strategies have been conceived as techniques

that learners use to understand the lack of lexis and struc-

tures when attempting to communicate (Cohen, 2010).

Chou (2018) commented that “speaking strategies have

been viewed as first aid devices used for interaction and

communication, to address problems or breakdowns, and

to remain active in communication” (Chou, 2018, p. 611).

When referring to language learning strategies, Oxford

(2002) stated that “strategies are tools for the self-direc-

ted involvement necessary for developing communicati-

ve ability” (p. 124). Oxford (2002) explores the nature

of the use of language learning strategies; “… language

learning strategies – specific actions, behaviors, steps, or

techniques that students (often intentionally) use to im-

prove their progress in developing L2 skills. These strate-

gies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or

use of the new language” (Oxford, 2002, p. 124). Langua-

ge learning strategies are significant for students in EFL

contexts. It is a fact that speaking anxiety constitutes a

major issue that interferes with students’ communicative

skills, hence the relevance of this section.

Noticeably there has been a prominent focus on the use

of speaking strategies to alleviate speaking anxiety. Pre-

vious research considered speaking anxiety as an issue

that needed to be solved or reduced by using specific stra-

tegies or approaches. Atas (2015) reported the use of dra-

ma as a strategy that had positive effects on the level of

speaking anxiety in EFL learners: “Drama had many po-

sitive effects… Among the most important ones, we can

count the lowering of speaking anxiety levels; improving

self-confidence; increasing motivation; decreasing the le-

vel of their fear of being laughed at; and being called on

in English class” (Atas, 2015, p. 966). This study has an

evident problem-solving nature: “This study shows that

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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

drama helped to reduce speaking anxiety in FL classes”

(Atas, 2015, p. 968).

In another study that investigated university students’

anxiety and strategy use when speaking, it was found

that learners in a full English-medium instruction context

had a great level of confidence and lower speech anxie-

ty when speaking in English (Chou, 2018). Some of the

strategies used were imitation of native speakers, initia-

tion of conversations, discussion of unfamiliar topics, and

the use of synonyms (Chou, 2018). Moreover, speaking

anxiety reduction is established when Chou (2018) po-

sited that “…courses with full EMI appear to be more

beneficial for enhancing speaking ability in EFL learners,

at least in Taiwan, in terms of lowering speaking anxie-

ty…” (p. 626). Next, it is suggested that affective stra-

tegies such as self-encouragement and positive self-talk

may lower anxiety (Chou, 2018). Finally, Chou (2018)

concludes that lowering speaking anxiety is closely inter-

twined with instruction in English; “…increasing lexical

bundles, content knowledge, frequent exposure to inputs,

and opportunities to practice are the core foundations that

guarantee meaningful interaction in English and lower

anxiety in speaking” (Chou, 2018, p. 629). This is para-

mount in terms of teaching practices as L2 teachers ought

to be focused on exposing students to the target language

and providing speaking opportunities.

Closely aligned with the concept of reducing EFL spea-

king anxiety and concurrent with previous results, Han

and Keskin (2016) reported that the use of a mobile

application significantly helped students to lower spea-

king anxiety, particularly in female students. A caveat, the

reduction of speaking anxiety may come from the imple-

mentation of a mobile application or from direct exposure

to the target language (Chou, 2018).

Additionally, He (2017) explored practical strategies to

reduce foreign language speaking anxiety from a quan-

titative approach. In exploring and examining effective

strategies, two major constructs were identified: strate-

gies concerning teacher’s characteristics and strategies

concerning error correction (He, 2017). It is worth no-

ting that the teacher’s personal characteristics are positi-

vely associated in alleviating foreign language speaking

anxiety by creating a supportive learning environment

(He, 2017; Vargas, 2015).

Finally, Foss and Reitzel (1988) proposed strategies to

manage second language anxiety based on a relational

model. These strategies are a matter of the utmost im-

portance to this paper because they deal with managing

second language anxiety with the notion of alleviating or

reducing speaking anxiety. Even though these strategies

were conceived for second language contexts and they

addressed anxiety as a general learning concept, they

do provide rich and very useful information on how to

handle speaking anxiety. The first strategy relates to the

concept of motivational approaches (Foss & Reitzel,

1988). First, rational emotive therapy consists of a solid

state of awareness of what kinds of beliefs interfere with

language learning. Foss and Reitzel (1988) claimed that

“if these beliefs can be recognized, students can learn to

interpret such situations in more realistic ways and thus

may choose to approach rather than avoid situations de-

manding conversation” (Foss & Reitzel, 1988, p. 445).

Second, anxiety graphs are visual representations that let

learners identify the nature of the anxiety and pinpoint

the intensity level. This particular strategy becomes

crucial for the paper as it directly relates to speaking.

Foss and Reitzel (1988) added that “the anxiety graph

can help students internalize the fact that speaking a new

language is not a uniform process that is consistently di-

fficult and anxiety provoking” (Foss & Reitzel, 1988, p.

447).

The second strategy is associated with knowledge and

skills (Foss & Reitzel, 1988). Activities that aid learning

and help develop skills are role plays, drama drills, and

oral interpretations: “The group preparation, evaluation,

and performance lessen communication anxiety for many

students, as does the fact that they are performing the

works of others” (Foss & Reitzel, 1988, p. 449).

The third strategy is related to outcomes (Foss & Reit-

zel, 1988). Outcomes are associated with the general im-

pressions and feelings of the communicative event, for

example the use of journals for reflective purposes. Foss

and Reitzel (1988) affirmed that “the opportunity to re-

flect upon the outcomes of communication is necessary

for developing specific objectives for continuing compe-

tence… it allows students to realize, once again, the im-

portance of their perceptions in determining the outcome

of a particular communication episode” (Foss & Reitzel,

1988, p. 450).

The final strategy deals with the context (Foss & Reitzel,

1988). Context “involves identifying the objective en-

vironment and the subjective perceptions that influence

how students interact in that environment” (Foss & Reit-

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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

zel, 1988, p. 451). Particularly, case studies and artifacts

are used to pinpoint cultural perceptions and differences.

These are thought-provoking insights in relation to the

use of strategies to alleviate speaking anxiety particularly

in EFL contexts.

Criticism to Speaking Anxiety

This part of the paper intends to provide much-needed

criticism on speaking anxiety. This inclusion is to bring

a healthy balance when considering opposing views and

critiques. Ironically, the most relevant piece of criticism

emanates from the authors that have tried to establish a

relationship between language learning and speaking

anxiety: Elaine Horwitz, Michael Horwitz, and Joann

Cope. Research on second language “…has neither ade-

quately defined foreign language anxiety nor described

its specific effects on foreign language learning [spea-

king included]” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 125). The im-

possibility of clearly establishing the specific effects of

foreign language anxiety on language learning constitutes

a major gap in terms of a theoretical foundation or theory.

Now, the unfeasibility to define foreign language anxiety

does not seem to pose a real problem since other bodies

of literature and research have been able to successfully

achieve this task, these same authors included.

Also, according to specific clinical experience, there is no

difference between different types of anxiety. In exempli-

fying this idea, Horwitz et al. (1986) indicated that “the

subjective feelings, psycho-physiological symptoms, and

behavioral responses of the anxious foreign language

learner are essentially the same as for any specific anxie-

ty” (p. 126). Even though this piece of evidence demons-

trates no difference between foreign language anxiety

and other types of anxiety, it does offer solid evidence of

the relation between anxiety and foreign language, spea-

king included.

Likewise, one can say that there is a tendency to roman-

ticize ways to alleviate speaking anxiety with unsubs-

tantiated generalizations and recommendations. Light in

content and trustworthiness, these utterances become the

norm in the conclusion section of some studies. Learners

“should be provided with as much opportunity as possi-

ble to practice speaking in the classroom” (Alrabai, 2014,

p. 95). Even though denying the link between speaking

anxiety and EFL contexts might be harmful, not establi-

shing a solid research-based connection may jeopardize

serious endeavors to explore, explain, and understand the

connection between speaking anxiety and its influence on

students’ oral production in the EFL classroom in the light

of research-related data. Tianjian (2010) indicated that

“in the state of positive moods, the learners are less likely

to experience anxiety. Happy learners are comfortable

learners” (Tianjian, 2010, p. 107). It needs to be clear – as

an educator himself, the author is not saying this is not the

case. The lack of reliability (not in a quantitative fashion)

is just being pinpointed. These are rather commonalities

for any language class. The concepts analyzed in this sec-

tion represent elements of criticism to speaking anxiety.

Conclusion

This section of the paper goes over final considerations.

It is a foregone conclusion that speaking anxiety consti-

tutes a key issue that affects students and other actors in

language learning settings, particularly in EFL contexts.

This fact becomes central as it poses particular challenges

and conditions to the teaching-learning process that must

be addressed properly in order to have a solid understan-

ding of such a phenomenon and its implications. Langua-

ge learners and teachers need to be conscious of these

implications and how they influence and impact the lan-

guage learning process. Raising awareness on speaking

anxiety becomes a must for the different stakeholders of

the language learning process.

Even though the discussion in this paper offers an ove-

rarching panorama of the phenomenon within the field

of language learning, more research projects are required

to develop a better comprehension of the implications of

speaking anxiety from the perspective of language tea-

chers and how these affect the learning-teaching process

as a whole, particularly qualitative and quantitative at-

tempts. It is true that the vast majority of research projects

intend to provide data based on students’ experiences and

perceptions. Research projects and educational policies

must necessarily start considering different perspectives

and scenarios.

As a non-native language teacher, one has to admit that

specific conditions and situations might trigger scena-

rios conducive to different types and degrees of anxiety

when teaching a class. Non-native and native language

teachers might be influenced by these anxieties and this

reality clearly affects the teacher’s performance and stu-

dents’ acquisition process. Thus, more research is needed

to establish potential connections and implications to the

learning-teaching process and its effectiveness. Likewise,

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Bula, O. Problematizing Speaking Anxiety in Language Learning Settings.

students’ perceptions on these types of teachers’ anxieties

must be explored and considered.

It is also evident that speaking anxiety constitutes a mul-

tifaceted phenomenon that relates to personal and inner

situations – that is, speaking anxiety is a construct with

particular and specific nuances that impact learning

processes in a variety of ways. As such, a multifaceted

approach is required to encompass an ongoing variety

of techniques and strategies to successfully alleviate and

reduce speaking anxiety and its impact in the language

classroom. Experience becomes absolutely relevant when

addressing speaking anxiety, but language teachers also

need to fully understand the uniqueness and subtleties of

each situation.

Arguably research offers solid and thought-provoking

evidence on techniques and strategies that might be used

as a framework for national and international policies to

establish behavioral models or systematization proces-

ses that include protocols to address speaking anxiety in

more formal and effective ways. These systems or mo-

dels are to equip teachers and students with tools to hand-

le such a phenomenon and its implications to language

learning settings and in the decision-taking process. Noti-

ceably, these models must be based on tenets and theore-

tical backgrounds that are corroborated and exemplified

by research data. These insights are pertinent conclusions

about the phenomenon of speaking anxiety in language

learning settings.

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